Societies Within Society - The Secret Societies of Liberia

You will come into contact with Secret Societies if you stay long in Liberia.  You will hear all sorts of things about them both good and bad.  You will probably see all sorts of evidence of them, like the masked and raffia dressed man I witnessed last summer dancing in the Monrovia streets on 10 foot stilts.  If you desire to better understand the complex picture painted by Liberian culture it is essential to have a basic introduction to these societies.  

A 'Bush Girl' - the white chalk paint can symbolize many things including an 'in-between' phase before her graduation when she is considered a kind of walking dead. 

Poro and Sande

First off there are two main societies: Poro and Sande.  Poro is the society for men, Sande for women.  There are many other societies as well, but these are the main traditional societies (for example, the Krahn that have a society more like those of Ivory Coast, and the Masonic Order which functioned in Liberia as a kind of secret society among Americo-Liberians yet rumored to have practiced ritual sacrifices just like Poro).  Within Poro and Sande there are sub-groups that are designed for certain strata of society: chief, Zoe (pronounced "Zoh" meaning priest), and the regular ordinary initiate.  

Poro and Sande have held a great amount of power in Liberian society and in many cases they still do.  I have heard the rumor on several occasions that no one can hold a political position in Liberia without being a member of Poro or Sande.  I'm not sure that is true, but that sentiment is easy to find in Liberia. 

Citizenship by Initiation

What is fairly well documented is that many traditional communities do not consider the uninitiated to be a citizen of their village, clan, or even tribe.  The uninitiated are considered 'unclean', 'childish' and/or unfit for marriage until they have been initiated (this usually involves circumcision).  Therefore, the advantages to joining are so great that many parents are eager to place their child in 'bush school' during enrollment season.  

Forced Enrollment

Because the price for putting your child in bush school can be expensive for the poorer members of the community a controversial practice has arisen: 'forced initiation' or 'forced enrollment'.

From what I've been told, 'forced enrollment' used to occur on a certain day of enrollment season, after the formal enrollment and dues had been paid by other students (usually some chickens, rice, palm wine, kola nuts, or some other form of currency). 

The Day of Kidnapping

On this one particular day the masked school master(s) would roam through the village and "kidnap" any child they found out of his or her hut.  This 'kidnapping' was understood as a way for those in the community without sufficient funds to get their child into bush school so their child could be a respectable citizen of society.  

Parents understood that if they could not pay the enrollment dues they could leave their child outside of the hut on that day and they would be grabbed and taken to the secret location for initiation. 

Even today there are certain places where one is advised to not travel at certain times because the society will attempt to kidnap travelers and perform their initiation rituals upon them even if they have no intention of joining!  

Female Genital Mutilation

Just last summer there was a case in Liberian court about a girl who had been unwillingly taken by a society and forced to undergo female circumcision, which brings up another controversial practice: deemed FGM 'female genital mutilation' by its opponents, and about which I'd prefer not to elaborate except to say that the US DoS estimates 50% of Liberian women have undergone this sort of procedure.

This location for this bush school is not well hidden and often times they are not.  The palm woven walls around the meeting place is a barrier to non-initiates and should not be crossed. Trails in the bush leading to even more secluded spots are even more forbidden and should be avoided.

Benefits of Poro and Sande?

I've already introduced several controversial aspects of the societies, what about the good things advocates claim they do for Liberia?  Well, the publicly stated purpose of these societies is to instill a cultural norm for the community.  

For example, in bush school the initiates are taught their cultural history, folklore, and customs.  They are taught to respect their elders and how to perform certain tasks within the community.  While this model of generational wilderness school is not necessarily a bad model for teaching you will find the controversies have not been about the model of teaching per se, as much as they have been about what is taught in them and what is done to the students (see FGM above).

My sisters at a village in the Liberian bush.  Notice the two girls with white chalk faces - I was told they were in bush school and on leave to help out with the chores until the next session.

Secret Keeping

What exactly is taught in the secret society bush schools?  Well, it is called a secret society for a reason!  One of the things that is apparently taught is how to keep secrets.  Seriously.  

Secret keeping is highly valued in Liberian culture.  Many Liberians know what goes on behind closed doors, but not many are vocal about these things and consider that secret keeping to be a virtue. 

Bush School Curriculum

What has slipped out about bush school curriculum through the years is that there are various stories and songs and drum beats and dance steps and secret words taught in these ceremonies in the bush.  

One man revealed that all he did after his circumcision was go back into the 'sacred grove' and eat rice and hear a few stories and then he went home the same day initiated.  Perhaps he was kept at the lowest level of initiation because the society knew that he wasn't one for keeping secrets!  


What you are taught there also seems to depend on how much money you pay the teachers, how long you go, what tribe you are with, who your teachers are, and what caste you belong to among several other factors.  There also appears to be levels or degrees of initiates and different lessons for different occupations like hunter, herbalist, farmer, chief, zoe, etc.

The Bush Devil

and

Secret Societies

Bush girls seen from a taxi seem just as curious in us

You also need to be aware that the term 'devil' is commonly heard in Liberia concerning secret societies.  The man I saw last summer dancing on stilts and wearing a mask would have been called a 'devil'.  

Origin of the term

This is a term that is carried over from the old days of Christian missionaries to Liberia and Sierra Leone who called these masked, dancing people 'possessed by the devil'.  This interpretation would make sense to a Christian worldview as the mask is viewed by these communities as having a spirit that needs "fed" (more on that later) and the ability to transform its wearer into another being.  

The Devil Bush

This terminology has also carried over to the sacred grove where the bush school takes place.  These areas are commonly called 'Devil Bush' in the common Liberian vernacular.  One is forbidden to enter a 'devil bush' without being invited and this was at one time punishable by death.  I'm not interested in seeing if this law is still in practice and if I were to see a spot marked in the jungle (usually with palm branches making an archway near the entrance or a hanging medicine bag) I would avoid it.

Video of a Krahn 'Devil' visiting a community. The Krahn have a similar secret society but seem
to be distinct from Poro and more akin to Ivorian socities.

Secret Societies 
and the Civil War

You will meet people in Liberia that believe that the cause of all of Liberia's problems are because they have neglected the ancient ways of Poro and Sande and the Divine Spirit of these societies is punishing them.  You will also meet people who say that God allowed Liberia to suffer because of the atrocities that take place in these societies and the sooner they are eradicated the better for everyone.  

Whatever the position one takes, the recent Civil Wars in Liberia revealed just how easy it can be for these secret societies to be hijacked and for devastating effect.  Children were often 'initiated' into various paramilitary societies and asked to perform rites of passage (i.e. atrocities which were often under the influence of drugs and alcohol).  These young soldiers were also seen wearing 'masks' such as wigs, bridal dresses, and actual Western Halloween masks while performing their deeds of war.  The warlords became the new chiefs and Zoes and the law was to follow them.  

Condemned Secret Societies

(Neegee and Human Leopards)

However, this hijacking of the traditional societies is not a recent development. There have been outbreaks of this sort of obscene violence and barbarism before: for example the Human Leopard Society. 

Poro and Sande both publically agree that the Human Leopard Society is an evil secret society.  This group and also the Neegee Society ('neegee' is the Bassa word for crocodile; literally "water leopard") are both openly condemned by Poro and Sande. Some hold that this public condemnation is only spin and that Poro is more than ready to practice human sacrifice when stronger power is needed.  

Feeding the Fetish

Societies like the Neegee are known to prey on humans to feed their 'fetish' (usually a carved wooden or waxen image of the spirit of their society).  This fetish-god is attended to by its Zoe (priest) and so it is the Neegee Zoe who knows the rituals for both placating the spirit of the leopard and for gaining power from this spirit.  One of the powers they are said to obtain from this spirit is the ability to transform, werewolf like, into a leopard or water-leopard (crocodile).

Ritualistic Murder and Cannibalism

The Neegee society is also notorious for ritualistically murdering their victims and making it look like a leopard or crocodile attack.  The tell-tale signs of the ritualistic murder however is that certain body parts are missing from the victim.  

These body parts are esteemed for their purported ability to instill specific powers in the person who eats them under the proper guidance of the Zoe.  Part of that ceremony seems to involve the fetish-god being fed some of the victim's blood and fat.  Once that spirit is satisfied then the initiates eat specific body parts for specific powers themselves.  The distribution of these body parts is usually determined by the rank of the members with the highest ranking getting the choice parts.   

Poro, Sande, and Ritualistic Murder?

While the Neegee Society is known for this ritualistic cannibalism, it has been assumed by some that Poro and Sande also historically engaged in these sort of practices.  This could stem from the fact that new initiates are described as having been eaten by the society spirit while in the devil bush. 

Scarification

 Part of this process does indeed involve scarification (which are interpreted as 'teeth marks') being made upon the initiate to show that he has been eaten by the spirit, which is the necessary precursor to being 'reborn' into society as a true citizen of the community.  You will see many people in Liberia with this sort of scarification.  They will as a rule not talk about these marks if you bring this up for discussion.

A 'Devil' on stilts - similar to the one I saw from my taxi in Monrovia last summer.

Conclusion

As I continue on with this survey I realize how much this only scratches the surface.  I haven't even touched on masks, the taboo laws, animal spirit guides, graduation ceremonies, markings, amulets, sassywood ordeals, carved stools, staffs, degrees, transmigration of souls, lightning manipulation, medicine huts, juju, et al.  

T. J. Aldridge photo of Poro Tassos (priests) in nearby Sierra Leone, 1901, Cambridge University Library

There are books upon books written about these sorts of things and let it just suffice to say that the impact of secret societies upon Liberian culture is widespread and pervasive beyond what these few paragraphs can illuminate.  Perhaps I will write more on this subject in the future, but for now just be aware that there is a culture in Liberia that lies beneath the culture and one can feel that it is there.

Languages of Liberia

All the languages of Liberia are classified under the Niger-Congo family (including the Akan branch of the Fanti, but excluding the Liberian English and Lebanese, etc. imported to the region).  There are two main sub-groups under this heading as follows:

• Mande (this includes Bandi, Gio, Kpelle, Loma, Mandinka (Mandingo), Mano, Mende & Vai) [Here is an interesting map of this language distributed throughout West Africa]
• Atlantic-Congo (this includes the Kru and Mel groups listed in the previous post )

The distribution of these languages is shown in the map below with the Atlantic-Congo family separated into the more specific Kru and Atlantic (Mel) groups:

Language map of Liberia
from Ethnologue.com - Used by permission

I don't want to get too technical here.  Instead I'd like to give you an opportunity to actually hear some of these languages spoken.  I've been searching the internet for audio files of these languages and have found the following examples (most are from missionary translation work of the bible or the Jesus Film).  Enjoy hearing Liberia speak!:


Mande Languages:

• Bandi
• Gio/Dan 
• Kpelle
• Loma
• Mandinka (Mandingo tribe)
• Mano
• Mende
• Vai (check out the cool script on the opening title sequence --- this is a native script that has an interesting history I hope to share about at a later date)

Atlantic-Congo Languages:


Kru Languages:

• Bassa - I also have a post on "How To Count To Ten in Bassa".
• Kuwaa (Bella Tribe)  --- (click on the link at the bottom right that reads, "play an audio sample")
• Dewoin (Dei Tribe) (click on the link at the bottom right that reads, "play an audio sample")
• Grebo
• Tchien - Krahn (Krahn Tribe)
• Kru

Atlantic (Mel) Languages:

• Gola
• Kissi

Lastly there is actually a Liberian English version recorded as well.  That can be heard here. (you will have to select a 'Message' then select a 'version' then click 'hear an audio sample'.)  For a brief introduction to Liberian English you can check out my earlier post here.  


I hope you enjoyed hearing Liberia speak!

The People Groups of Liberia

"The Sixteen Tribes"
A Popular Carving Piece Sold in Liberia

When the US encouraged and supported groups of "free people of color" to return to Africa in the 1800's they did not arrive at a desolate land.  These Americo-Liberians, as they became called, found a variety of ethnic groups already living and settled in what is now modern day Liberia.  Ethnologists and linguists have discovered all sorts of groups and subgroups, but the traditional number of Liberian tribes is 16.  These 16 people groups can themselves be structured into 3 linguistic groups:

• Mel (consisting of the Gola and Kissi tribes)
• Kru (Bassa, Bella, Dei, Grebo, Krahn, Kru)
• Mande (Bandi, Gio, Kpelle, Loma, Mandingo, Mano, Mende, Vai)

NOTE: These groups are notorious for having a multitude of different spellings and names.  For example, the "Gio" are also called the "Dan" or the "Yakuba"; the "Loma" are also called the "Buzi"; and the "Mende" are also known as the "Boumpe", "Hulo", or "Kosso".  Besides the different names one may encounter for some of these people groups there are a multitude of different spellings for almost all of these groups.  For example the "Kissi" people can be listed as "Kisi", "Gisi", "Gizi", or "Kissien".

Traditional Territories of Liberian Tribes
Creative Commons License

Largest Ethnic Groups in Liberia

The four largest people groups in Liberia make up over 50% of the population.  The largest group is comprised of the Kpelle people (aka Gbese, Kpele, Kpesso, Kpwesi, Kpwessi, Pessa, Pessy) and they make up approximately 20% of the entire population of Liberia.  The second largest group is the Bassa who make up roughly 16%.  The Gio/Dan (8%) and the Kru (7%) round out the top four most populous tribes of Liberia.  

Who Were the First Liberians?

The Earliest Settlers

Who were the earliest settlers of Liberia? Was it a Gola/Kissi proto-tribe? The Dei? The Dua? Many histories I've read believe that it was the Gola people who were the first to arrive in what is modern day Liberia.  However, traditions have been passed on that when they arrived they found some Dei (De, Dei, Dewoi, Dewoin, Dey) peoples already settled here. Even more mysteriously these Gola found the Jinna (Jina) or more specifically the Dua (Dwarf) peoples. 

Jinna and Dua

The Jinna (associated with our word 'geni') are apparantly spirit beings with great magic and come in all sorts of shapes and sizes and bodies. One particular type of Jinna are the Dua people and it is speculated by some that they were the first Liberians.  These Dua have become the thing of legends (although some still claim to have seen them) and they were possibly a pygmy race that lived in caves and the hollows of fallen trees while living off the jungle in ancient Liberia.  They also possessed great magic power and so they have become associated with the Jinna or as a manifestation of the Jinna. The Jinna in general are believed to know deep magic and they still continue to play a role in Liberian legend, lore & ritual.  For a great definition and illustration of this read "WARNING! Do Not Bathe or Wash Clothes Today and Tomorrow, You Must Not Eat!"

The Kissi People

Another early group are the Kissi and they are perhaps associated with these early Gola. Perhaps there was a proto group from which they both derive? Whatever the case, the Kissi people are classified in the same linguistic family with the Gola. The problem with that is they are not mutually understood and in fact, some linguists have placed Gola in its own peculiar language grouping.  The Kissi are today found not too far from the Gola in Liberia (and also in Sierra Leone and Guinea) and I'll discuss two interesting features of the Kissi here.  First, they have been known to sharpen their incisors for cosmetic and/or ritualistic purposes.  Secondly, they are most famously known for their iron bars that they used as money (called Kissi pennies) up into the 20th century.

The Second Wave

The second major wave of peoples to arrive still remain on the edges of recorded history thousands of years before Christ.  This group was known as the "Kumbas" or the people of King Kumba.  This  chief Kumba apparantly conquered the Golas and set up his ancient empire in what is now Liberia.  After his death his peoples subdivided into what is now known as the Bandi, Kpelle, Loma, Mano, Gio, and Mende.  

The Third Wave

A Traditional Bassa Greeting
For more on this event check out "The Spotted Man of Zondo and His Ancient Horn"

In comparatively more modern times (1500's AD) a third big migration of Kru (sometimes called Kwa) peoples came from the modern-day Cote d'Ivoire area.  This group comprised of the Bassa, Bella, Dei, Grebo, Krahn, and Kru.  The Kru are interesting in that they settled the coast and were skilled sailors and fishermen and today are major players in the fishing industry of Liberia.  This also meant that they were the ones most targeted for forced ship labor by European ships.  Some speculate that their name "Kru" derives from the word "crew" into which they were often conscripted. The Kru were also targets of a modern day (1900's) conscription in the infamous Fernando Po incident that I'll discuss in a later post.

The Last 'Native' Migration to Liberia

The last great migration before the Americo-Liberians arrived in the 1800's comprised of the Vai (Gallinas, Gallines, Vei, Vy) and Mandingo (Mandinka, Malinke, Mandinko) peoples.  They came in waves during the 16th and 17th centuries respectively and are similar in two major aspects.  First, both of these groups are from the same linguistic family (Mande).  Secondly, they are both Muslim.  (Liberia is roughly 10% Muslim and these two groups make up the bulk of the population of this religious perspective in Liberia.  It is estimated that Liberia is also 30% Christian and 60% Animistic, although these stats seem to be in constant flux).  

There are some differences between these two Mande groups however. For example, the Vai are quite settled in Northwest Liberia and parts of neighboring Sierra Leone, the Mandingo people however continue to have much larger population centers outside of Liberia.  Liberia has approximately 200,000 Mandingo, but compare this to the nations of Guinea (3,000,000), Mali (2,600,000), Burkina Faso (2,000,000), Niger (1,900,000) and The Gambia (714,000 - where they make up 42% of the population).  In Liberia the Mandingo make up close to 7% of the population but they draw on these other larger population centers outside of Liberia to become a major force of trade and business dealings in Liberia.  In other words, they are small in population size in Liberia, but they are well-connected throughout West Africa.

Some Traditional "Devil" Costumes found on a wall in Vai Territory
Robertsport, Liberia

Other Ethnic Groups Living In Liberia

There are also other people groups that add to the diversity of the culture of Liberia.  One group is the Lebanese and Syrian business community that used to dominate the trade in Liberia.  Since the UN presence after the Civil Wars however this group has had major competition from Indian, Pakistani and Chinese businessmen.  The Fanti people from Ghana also continue to reside in Liberia and trade in the fishing industry.  Besides these major sub-groups engaged in Liberian culture there are also many businessmen from neighboring African nations (especially members of ECOWAS) and European and North American communities mostly focused on humanitarian causes.

A Fanti Town near Buchanan, Liberia

The Wonderful Mix That Makes Liberia

Take all of these people groups together with the Americo-Liberians from the US and you get a very interesting mix of cultures, languages (approximately 32 (counting dialects)) and ethnicities.  Liberia is a melting pot of cultures that sometimes clash and sometimes compliment one another.  There has also been a lot of intermarriages and several aggressive national unification initiatives that have brought about blurred lines between these tribal distinctions.  This is especially true in the city of Monrovia which now is home to almost 30% (1,000,000) of the population all by itself!  Outside of Monrovia and especially as one gets away from any of the Liberian cities and further into the traditional territories of specific tribes and clans these distinctions will become more defined and the old traditions will be more valued and preserved by the people living there.  As one can see, Liberia is a very diverse and complex experience!      





  

Cotton From Trees?

Kapok Ceiba pentandra in Kolkata, West Bengal, India.
Note: 'This closely resembles the cotton tree fruit in Liberia as well'
photo by J. M. Garg

The scientific name is ceiba pentandra (variety guineensis).  In Liberia it is called the 'cotton tree'.  As you can tell from the above picture of its fruit the name fits.  These cotton trees are easy to recognize even when they are not covered with their cotton-like fiber.  This is because they tower above the surrounding forest standing 'head and shoulders" above the rest.

The famous Cotton Tree of Robertsport

author playing in a cotton tree

The trees have a spreading plank buttress trunk that look like folded wood drapes in larger trees.  One could sneak between the folds of the spreading trunk and be completely hidden from view!  The trunk also often has prickly sections of thorns that I suppose detract enemies of the plant.  The trunk itself is an amazing work of organic sculpture that brought out the boy in me.  I had fun climbing around on its roots and trunk folds.

Some of the prickly thorns that can grow on the trunk of a cotton tree (ceiba pentandra)

Cotton tree in Zondobli, GBC, Liberia

Varieties of this tree grow in all sorts of tropical climates around the world.  Some scientist speculate that the tree actually originates in the Americas and a variety of this tree was sacred to the Mayans as a tree of life which was climbed upon death.  Some however speculate that it originates in Africa.  The variety in Liberia seems to me to be bigger than most, if not the biggest variety.  Of a related note is the fact that the tree seems to have held some sort of sacred meaning to some Liberians as well.  In reading about ancient customs of the Bassa tribe, for example, I found that sometimes the youngest son of the chief was buried with his father.  This cruel practice involved placing the live child in the ground with his deceased father holding a bowl that contained the seeds of the cotton tree.  The cotton tree that would later grow from this grave site would be a sort of memorial to the chief.  Perhaps it holds some of the same associations with death that the Mayans held?  Whatever the case, whenever I saw a cotton tree I always wondered if this was the old grave of a chief and some poor child was unwillingly planted with this tree.

Mom by a cotton tree near Doedehn, GBC, Liberia c. 1985

Folding trunk of the Cotton Tree of Robertsport

The trees can grow upwards of 200 ft. tall and can have a trunk of immense diameter as you can tell from these pics.  I have seen cotton trees even bigger than this one near the beach at Robertsport.  However, this particular tree has a legend with it in that J. J. Roberts (the first president of Liberia) arrived here in the late 1800's on a ship from the United States that tied itself to this tree.  Hence, the name of this town: Robertsport.  As a historical aside, Roberts was actually born in Norfolk, VA and today would've been considered a US citizen.  He was sent to Africa under the guidance of the American Colonization Society in their efforts to send "free people of color" back to Africa.  This whole ordeal is a part of US history often overlooked and ties our nation with the nation of Liberia in ways that need to be further explored.  In a way, this historical tree symbolizes this US - Liberia connection.  Whether it is the stuff of legends or not one cannot deny this beautiful giant is hundreds of years old and worthy of the preservation efforts that it has received in the past.

Looking up at a cotton tree

The cotton tree can offer more than just the pleasure of looking at it.  From what I've read people have tried to use the cotton-like fiber of these trees like regular cotton, although they have found it difficult to spin.  Therefore, it is mostly used as filler when harvested for commercial purposes and this is done today in parts of SE Asia where it is harvested.  The seeds found in the fiber are sometimes pressed for their oil which is found to be fairly resistant to drying out.  The wood of the tree itself is light and easy to carve and Liberians have used it for boats, mortars and carvings among other things.  I would hope though that not too many of these amazing trees are harvested in the rampant de-forestation that has plagued Liberia recently.  More about that later....


I'll end with a short video of the Cotton Tree of Robertsport so that you can better appreciate the size and beauty of this amazing tree.